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Freedom of the press in the United States

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Freedom of the press in the United States is legally protected by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.

History

Thirteen Colonies

Further information:  Early American publishers and printers

In the Thirteen Colonies before the signing of the Declaration of Independence, the newspapers and the works produced by printing presses in general was subject to a series of regulations. British authorities attempted to prohibit the publication and circulation of information of which they did not approve, and often levied charges of sedition and libel as a means of controlling printing presses.[1][2][3]

One of the earliest cases concerning freedom of the press occurred in 1734. In a libel case against The New York Weekly Journal publisher John Peter Zenger by British governor William Cosby, Zenger was acquitted and the publication continued until 1751. At that time, there were only two newspapers in New York City and the second was not critical of Cosby's government.[4]

U.S. Constitution

The First Amendment permits information, ideas and opinions without interference, constraint or prosecution by the government.[5][6] It was adopted on December 15, 1791, as one of the ten amendments that constitute the Bill of Rights.

Early federal laws

In 1798, eleven years after adoption of the Constitution and seven years after ratification of the First Amendment, the governing Federalist Party attempted to stifle criticism with the Alien and Sedition Acts. According to the Sedition Act, criticism of Congress or the president (but not the vice-president) was a crime; Thomas Jefferson, a Democratic-Republican, was vice-president when the act was passed. These restrictions on the press were very unpopular, leading to the party's reduction to minority status after 1801, and eventual dissolution in 1824. Jefferson, who vehemently opposed the acts, was elected president in 1800 and pardoned most of those convicted under them. In his March 4, 1801 inaugural address, he reiterated his longstanding commitment to freedom of speech and of the press: "If there be any among us who would wish to dissolve this Union or to change its republican form, let them stand undisturbed as monuments of the safety with which error of opinion may be tolerated where reason is left free to combat it."[7]

19th century

In mid-August 1861, four New York City newspapers (the New York Daily News, The Journal of Commerce, the Day Book and the New York Freeman’s Journal) were given a presentment by a U.S. Circuit Court grand jury for "frequently encouraging the rebels by expressions of sympathy and agreement". This began a series of federal prosecutions during the Civil War of northern U.S. newspapers which expressed sympathy for Southern causes or criticized the Lincoln administration. Lists of "peace newspapers", published in protest by the New York Daily News, were used to plan retributions. The Bangor Democrat in Maine, was one of these newspapers; assailants believed part of a covert Federal raid destroyed the press and set the building ablaze.[8] These actions followed executive orders issued by President Abraham Lincoln; his August 7, 1861 order made it illegal (punishable by death) to conduct "correspondence with" or give "intelligence to the enemy, either directly or indirectly".[9]

20th century

World War I

The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918, which amended it, imposed restrictions on the press during wartime. The acts imposed a fine of $10,000 and up to 20 years' imprisonment for those publishing "... disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language about the form of government of the United States, or the Constitution of the United States, or the military or naval forces of the United States, or the flag ..."[10] In Schenck v. United States (1919) the Supreme Court upheld the laws, setting the "clear and present danger" standard. Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969) revised the clear-and-present-danger test to the significantly less-restrictive "imminent lawless action" test.

Near v. Minnesota

The 1931 U.S. Supreme Court decision Near v. Minnesota recognized freedom of the press by roundly rejecting prior restraints on publication, a principle that applied to free speech generally in subsequent jurisprudence. The court ruled that a Minnesota law targeting publishers of malicious or scandalous newspapers violated the First Amendment (as applied through the Fourteenth Amendment).

Branzburg v. Hayes

Freedom of the press was described in 1972's Branzburg v. Hayes as "a fundamental personal right", not confined to newspapers and periodicals.[11] In Lovell v. City of Griffin (1938),[12] Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes defined the press as "every sort of publication which affords a vehicle of information and opinion."[13] This right has been extended to newspapers, books, plays, movies, and video games.[14]

Associated Press v. United States

Associated Press v. United States (1945) dealt with media cooperation[15] and consolidation. The court held that the AP violated the Sherman Antitrust Act by prohibiting the sale or proliferation of news to nonmember organizations and keeping nonmembers from joining; the AP bylaws constituted restraint of trade, and the fact that AP had not achieved a monopoly was irrelevant. The First Amendment did not excuse newspapers from the Sherman Antitrust Act. News, traded between states, counts as interstate commerce and is subject to the act. Freedom of the press from governmental interference under the First Amendment does not sanction repression of that freedom by private interests (326 U.S. 20[clarification needed]). Justice Hugo Black wrote, "The First Amendment ... rests on the assumption that the widest possible dissemination of information from diverse and antagonistic sources is essential to the welfare of the public ... Freedom to publish is guaranteed by the Constitution, but freedom to combine to keep others from publishing is not".[16]

New York Times Co. v. Sullivan

In New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964), the Supreme Court ruled that when a publication involves a public figure, to support a suit for libel the plaintiff bears the burden of proving that the publisher acted with actual malice: knew of the inaccuracy of the statement or acted with reckless disregard of its truth.

Greenbelt Cooperative Publishing Association, Inc. v. Bresler

Main article: Greenbelt Cooperative Publishing Ass'n, Inc. v. Bresler

In 1970, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a news organization couldn't be sued over the use of "rhetorical hyperbole". The usage in question was when quoting eyewitnesses, but the court ruled that, even if it hadn't, to call it libel "would subvert the most fundamental meaning of a free press".

New York Times Co. v. United States

Main article: New York Times Co. v. United States

In 1971, the Supreme Court upheld the publication of the Pentagon Papers.

Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier

In Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier (1988), the Supreme Court upheld the right of a school principal to review (and suppress) controversial articles in a school newspaper funded by the school and published in its name.

21st century

Although it had been uncertain whether people who blog or use other social media are journalists entitled to protection by media shield laws,[17] they are protected by the Free Speech and Free Press Clauses (neither of which differentiates between media businesses and nonprofessional speakers).[5][6][18] This is further supported by the Supreme Court, which has refused to grant increased First Amendment protection to institutional media over other speakers;[19][20][21] In a case involving campaign finance laws, the court rejected the "suggestion that communication by corporate members of the institutional press is entitled to greater constitutional protection than the same communication by" non-institutional-press businesses.[22]

In United States v. Manning (2013), Chelsea Manning was found guilty of six counts of espionage for furnishing classified information to WikiLeaks.

Stop Online Piracy Act

On October 26, 2011 the Stop Online Piracy Act, which opponents said would threaten free speech and censor the Internet, was introduced to the U.S. House of Representatives. White House Press Secretary Jay Carney said that President Obama "[would] not support legislation that reduces freedom of expression."[23] The bill was shelved in 2012 after widespread protests.[24]

Obsidian Finance Group, LLC v. Cox

Main article: Obsidian Finance Group, LLC v. Cox

On 2014, blogger Crystal Cox accused Obsidian and Kevin D. Padrick of corrupt and fraudulent conduct. Although the court dismissed most of Cox's blog posts as opinion, it found one post to be more factual in its assertions (and, therefore, defamatory).

It was ruled for the first time,[25][26] by the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit,[27] that a blogger is entitled to the same free speech protection as a journalist and cannot be liable for defamation unless the blogger acted negligently.[28] In the decision, journalists and bloggers are equally protected under the First Amendment[25] because the "protections of the First Amendment do not turn on whether the defendant was a trained journalist, formally affiliated with traditional news entities, engaged in conflict-of-interest disclosure, went beyond just assembling others' writings, or tried to get both sides of a story."[27]:11–12[29]

Ranking and polling of United States press freedom

In 2022, the U.S. ranked 42nd in the Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index.[30] This is an overall measure of freedom available to the press, including a range of factors including government censorship, control over journalistic access, and whistleblower protections. The U.S.'s ranking fell from 20th in 2010 to 49th in 2015, before recovering to 41st in 2016.

According to Reporters Without Borders the United States ranks behind most other Western nations for press freedom, but ahead of most Asian, African and South American countries.

Freedom House, a U.S.-based watchdog organization, ranked the United States 30th out of 197 countries in press freedom in 2014.[31] Its report praised the constitutional protections given American journalists and criticized authorities for placing undue limits on investigative reporting in the name of national security. Freedom House gives countries a score out of 100, with 0 the most free and 100 the least free. The score is broken down into three separately-weighted categories: legal (out of 30), political (out of 40) and economic (out of 30). The United States scored 6, 10, and 5, respectively, that year for a cumulative score of 21.[32]

In a Pew Research survey of 11,889 U.S. journalists conducted from February 16 to March 17, 2022, 57% stated that they were "extremely" or "very" concerned about the prospect of press restrictions being imposed in the United States.[33]

U.S. Press Freedom Tracker

Freedom of the press in the United States

The U.S. Press Freedom Tracker documents press freedom violations in the United States.[35]

The tracker was founded in 2017 and was developed from funds donated by the Committee to Protect Journalists.[34][35] It is led by the Freedom of the Press Foundation and a group of organizations. Its purpose is "to provide reliable, easy-to-access information on the number of press freedom violations in the United States – from journalists facing chargers to reporters stopped at the U.S. border or asked to hand over their electronics."[36]

The database is supported by a steering committee of Committee to Protect Journalists and twenty press freedom groups. It was developed to document the increasing rate of assaults, seizures of equipment, arrests, and stops at the border.[35] It tracks the type of law enforcement—local, state, and the National Guard—and the nationality of the journalists.[37] The tracker is maintained and findings are published by the Freedom of the Press Foundation.[37][38][39]

Violence against journalists in the U.S.

See also: List of journalists killed in the United States

According to the U.S. Press Freedom Tracker, in 2020, approximately 300 journalists were assaulted in the U.S. (primarily by law enforcement) and at least 110 were arrested or criminally charged in relation to their reporting.[40]

On September 3, 2022, investigative journalist Jeff German of the Las Vegas Review-Journal was stabbed to death outside his home.[41] Police arrested a government official who was the subject of German's reporting for the murder.[42]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Eldridge, Journal, 1995, p. 337
  2. ↑ Thomas, 1847, Vol I, p. lxvii
  3. ↑ Nelson, 1959, p. 160
  4. ↑ Wroth, 1938, p. 176
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "First Amendment: An Overview". | Wex Legal Dictionary / Encyclopedia. Legal Information Institute of the Cornell University. Retrieved April 18, 2014.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Michael W. McConnell: Reconsidering Citizens United as a Press Clause Case. In: The Yale Law Journal. 123 2013–2014. Jahrgang, 2 November 2013 Pages 266–529, November 2013 (yalelawjournal.org [abgerufen am 19. April 2014]).
  7. ↑ Avalon Project. In: Yale Law School. Abgerufen am 5. März 2017.
  8. ↑ Words at War: The Civil War and American Journalism by David B. Sachsman, Purdue University Press, 2008.
  9. ↑ Executive Order. In: American Presidency Project. Abgerufen am 5. März 2017.
  10. ↑ U.S. Espionage Act, 7 May 1918. In: firstworldwar.com. Abgerufen am 5. März 2017.
  11. ↑ 408 U.S. 665 (1972)
  12. ↑ Lovell v. City of Griffin, 303 U.S. 444 (1938)
  13. ↑ Lovell, at 452
  14. ↑ Adam Liptak: Justices Reject Ban on Violent Video Games for Children. In: The New York Times. 27. Juni 2011, abgerufen am 19. April 2013.
  15. ↑ "Associated Press v. United States 326 U.S. 1 (1945)", Justia. US Supreme Court. June 18, 1945. Retrieved 8 feb 2017
  16. ↑ "Media Bias", Paul Ruschmann. Infobase Publishing, 2006. p. 87. Retrieved 8 feb 2017
  17. ↑ Doug Mataconis: Bloggers, Media Shield Laws, And The First Amendment. Outside The Beltway, 28. Mai 2013, abgerufen am 9. August 2013.
  18. ↑ Eugene Volokh (Gary T. Schwartz Professor of Law at Los Angeles School of Law of the University of California: The American Heritage Foundatio's Guide to the Constitution: Freedom of Speech and of the Press. The American Heritage Foundation, abgerufen am 18. April 2014.
  19. ↑ See Bartnicki v. Vopper, 532 U.S. 514 (2001) where the Court, "draw no distinction between the media respondents and" a non-institutional respondent.
  20. ↑ See Cohen v. Cowles Media Co., 501 U.S. 663 (1991) where the Court held that the press gets no special immunity from laws that apply to others, including those—such as copyright law—that target communication.
  21. ↑ See also Henry v. Collins, 380 U.S. 356, 357 (1965) (per curiam) (applying Sullivan standard to a statement by an arrestee); Garrison v. Louisiana, 379 U.S. 64, 67–68 (1964) (applying Sullivan standard to statements by an elected district attorney); New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. at 286 (applying identical First Amendment protection to a newspaper defendant and individual defendants).
  22. ↑ First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti, 435 U.S. 765 (1978)
  23. ↑ Texas Insider. Texas Insider, S. 1, abgerufen am 19. Januar 2012.
  24. ↑ SOPA bill shelved after global protests from Google, Wikipedia and others In: The Washington Post January 20, 2012. Abgerufen im 17 July 2016. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Ken Paulson: Bloggers enjoy First Amendment protection against libel suits. First Amendment Center, 24. Januar 2014, abgerufen am 2. Februar 2014: „"In a landmark decision on Friday, a federal appellate court held for the first time that blogs enjoy the same First Amendment protection from libel suits as traditional news media."“
  26. ↑ Tim Hull: Blogger's Speech Rights Championed in the 9th In: Courthouse News Service 17 January 2014. Abgerufen im 2 February 2014. „"I think it sets an important precedent that bloggers, for First Amendment purposes, have the same rights as others do, as for example the institutional media does," Volokh said in a phone interview. "There have been plenty of past cases around the circuits that point in that direction, but this is the first time that the 9th Circuit has specifically ruled on this, and this is one of the cases that has focused on bloggers. Most cases have dealt with other nonprofessional media, but this one is particularly the first clear blogging case that I know from the circuit courts."“ 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Arthur Alarcón, Milan D. Smith, Jr., and Andrew D. Hurwitz: United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit case Obsidian Finance Group LLC and Kevin Padrick vs. Crystal Cox (12-35238). In: United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit case, 17. Januar 2014, abgerufen am 2. Februar 2014.
  28. ↑ Dan Levine: Blogger gets same speech protections as traditional press: U.S. court In: Reuters 17 January 2014. Abgerufen im 2 February 2014. 
  29. ↑ Tim Hull: Blogger's Speech Rights Championed in the 9th In: Courthouse News Service 17 January 2014. Abgerufen im 2 February 2014. 
  30. ↑ United States | RSF. In: rsf.org. Abgerufen am 25. Juli 2022 (Lua error in Module:Multilingual at line 149: attempt to index field 'data' (a nil value).).
  31. ↑ Press Freedom Rankings – Freedom House. Archiviert vom Original am 9. Juli 2019; abgerufen am 15. Januar 2015.
  32. ↑ United States – Country report – Freedom of the Press – 2014.
  33. ↑ Jeffrey Gottfried, Amy Mitchell, Mark Jurkowitz, Jacob Liedke: Journalists Sense Turmoil in Their Industry Amid Continued Passion for Their Work. In: Pew Research Center's Journalism Project. 14. Juni 2022, abgerufen am 14. Juni 2022 (Lua error in Module:Multilingual at line 149: attempt to index field 'data' (a nil value).).
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Jemima McEvoy: A Record Number Of Journalists Were Arrested In 2020, Most Covering Racial Unrest. Abgerufen am 21. April 2021. (englisch) 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Feinberg, Ashley (August 2, 2017). "The US Press Freedom Tracker Follows Abuses of Journalists To Help Stop Them". Wired. Retrieved April 21, 2020.
  36. ↑ Amy Goodman: The Fight to Project Journalists In: The Spokesman-Review (syndicated article) 29. Dezember 2017, S. c3. Abgerufen am 22. April 2021. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 'I'm getting shot': attacks on journalists surge in US protests. In: The Guardian. 5. Juni 2020, abgerufen am 21. April 2021 (Lua error in Module:Multilingual at line 149: attempt to index field 'data' (a nil value).).
  38. ↑ Pete MADDEN, ALEX GURVETS: US Press Freedom Tracker launches with donation from 'body-slamming' congressman. In: ABC News. Abgerufen am 15. April 2022.
  39. ↑ Feinberg, Ashley. "A Crucial New Site Tracks Attacks on Press in the US". Wired. Retrieved April 15, 2022.
  40. ↑ In 2020, U.S. journalists faced unprecedented attacks. In: Committee to Protect Journalists. 15. Dezember 2020, abgerufen am 25. Juli 2022 (Lua error in Module:Multilingual at line 149: attempt to index field 'data' (a nil value).).
  41. ↑ Michelle Watson and Hannah Sarisohn: Las Vegas police seek public's help after veteran reporter is found dead outside his home. In: CNN. Abgerufen am 8. September 2022.
  42. ↑ Police arrest local official suspected of killing Las Vegas reporter Jeff German. In: Committee to Protect Journalists. 8. September 2022, abgerufen am 8. September 2022 (Lua error in Module:Multilingual at line 149: attempt to index field 'data' (a nil value).).

Sources

  • Larry D. Eldridge: Before Zenger: Truth and Seditious Speech in Colonial America, 1607–1700. In: The American Journal of Legal History. 39. Jahrgang, Nr. 3. Oxford University Press, Juli 1995, S. 337–358, doi:10.2307/845791, JSTOR:845791.
  • Harold L. Nelson: Seditious Libel in Colonial America. In: The American Journal of Legal History. 3. Jahrgang, Nr. 2. Oxford University Press, April 1959, S. 160–172, doi:10.2307/844283, JSTOR:844283.
  • Isaiah Thomas: The history of printing in America, with a biography of printers. Band I. New York, B. Franklin, 1874 (archive.org).
  • Lawrence C. Wroth: The Colonial Printer. Portland, Me., The Southworth-Anthoensen press, 1938 (archive.org).

Further reading

  • Jasper Tran: Press Clause and 3D Printing. In: Northwestern Journal of Technology and Intellectual Property. 14. Jahrgang, 2016, S. 75 (northwestern.edu).
  • Epps, Garrett and David B. Oppenheimer. Freedom of the Press: The First Amendment: Its Constitutional History and the Contemporary Debate (2008)
  • Martin, Robert W.T. The Free and Open Press: The Founding of American Democratic Press Liberty, 1640–1800 (2012).
  • Nelson, Harold Lewis, ed. Freedom of the Press from Hamilton to the Warren Court (Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1967)
  • Powe, Lucas A. The Fourth Estate and the Constitution: Freedom of the Press in America (Univ of California Press, 1992)
  • Ross, Gary. Who Watches the Watchmen?: The Conflict Between National Security and Freedom of the Press (2015)
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